The Under Representation of Women in a "Feminized Profession"
by Amanda Bird


Despite the fact that there are more women in Master of Library and Information Studies (MLIS) programs than men, it is predominantly men who hold upper management positions within libraries.  This paper critically examines the learned gender role differences between men and women, with specific attention given to stereotypical differences in the ways in which men and women lead in upper management roles.  This paper explores the differences between these gender differences, paying particular attention to how these roles undervalue the work of women in the professional workforce.

Introduction
Gender role stereotyping and feminized professions
Gender role stereotyping and management styles
Feminist theories
Interview findings
Perceptions of gender discrimination
Conclusion


Introduction

The importance of libraries in our society cannot be argued; as social institutions, libraries function as places of learning where everyone is welcome to browse the book stacks, read for pleasure, conduct research, use the computers, and form communities. Libraries are safe spaces; patrons are free to take advantage of the wealth of resources found in libraries without fear of judgment or of personal safety. Libraries serve a wide spectrum of the population; depending on the type of library (public, academic, or special), users can range from business professionals to students, from the elderly to children, and from families to marginalized groups such as the illiterate, homeless, unemployed, and the mentally ill.

Although libraries serve wide populations of people, as institutions, they have been labeled as “feminine” because the predominant public perception is that librarians are mainly women. The perception that librarianship is a “feminized” profession is not baseless: the majority of librarians are women, as are the majority of individuals studying to receive Master of Library and Information Studies (MLIS) degrees.

Despite the fact that women dominate the library workforce, male librarians hold the majority of upper management positions within libraries. This phenomenon can be attributed to the fact that there are learned gender behaviours that differentiate men and women. In connection with this, there are stereotypical differences in how men and women act as leaders in upper management roles. Based on gender role differences between men and women, this paper will explore the reasons behind these distinctions, examine how and why they undervalue the work of women, and in connection with this, investigate whether women disseminate information differently than men.


Gender role stereotyping and feminized professions

Gender role stereotyping and feminized professions are directly connected, as each stereotype is integral to the perpetuation of the other. Librarianship is not the only feminized profession; women are also predominantly associated with teaching and nursing, and all three professions share similar characteristics. Generally, these professions require women to be caregivers, to educate, to chaperone children, to exhibit unyielding patience, and to be subservient. This is similar to the roles that women played as housewives prior to the majority of women vacating the sole roles of wife and mother and entering the workforce.

The transition of women leaving the home and entering the work force was cushioned by similar expectations of women both inside and outside of the home. On this topic, Northy writes, “The movement from home to librarianship was seen as a genteel calling and an extension of women’s traditional role because it involved service, transmittal of societal values and culture, focus on the individual and attention to detail” (Greer et al., 2001, p. 127).

The roles of working women have been undervalued, as have the stereotypical values associated with femininity: patience, acquiescence, horizontal consensus (opposed to vertical hierarchies, which are associated with men), and the need for validation. This devaluation of women and of the roles of women in the workforce is not due to socially constructed biological inadequacies in “femininity;” the devaluation of women is due to patriarchal ideologies. In her book Librarianship: The Erosion of a Woman’s Profession, Harris quotes Benner, who states:

Disparaging women for what they bring to their work and encouraging them to improve themselves for the sake of their professions is based upon the misguided assumption that feminine values have kept women and their fields subservient, rather than recognizing that society’s devaluing of and discrimination against women are the sources of the problem. The former view…blames the victim and promises that discrimination will stop when women abandon what they value and learn to play the power games like men do. (1992, p. 68)


Gender role stereotyping and management styles

Gender stereotypes are not only relevant to why women enter the field of librarianship and why the profession itself is considered “feminine,” they are also integral to the different management styles exhibited by men and women, providing a lens through which to critically examine the discrepancy between the high number of women in the field and the under-representation of women in management positions. Despite the fact that most librarians are women, women do not hold the majority of management positions in libraries. Women hold only 32.3 percent of managerial and professional jobs in Canada, and they occupy less than five percent of senior management positions (Appelbaum and Shapiro, 1993, p. 28).

In their article, Leadership & Gender: A Dangerous Liaison?, Trinidad and Normore discuss the interrelationship of gender roles and identity: “The construct of gender implies the way meaning associates with sex in members of a culture in terms of expected learned behaviors, traits, and attitudes” (2005, p. 576). Gender differences may not only be taught; there are other hypotheses about the gender differences between men and women. Appelbaum et al. note:

Research has produced various theories: whether or not the approach to leadership differs between men and women as distinctive biological groups; whether this difference is one of style or substance; whether it is real or perceived; whether one leadership approach is more or less effective than the other and which is more likely to lead to success. (2003, p. 44)

Feminist theories provide rich frameworks from which to view the connections between libraries and the perpetuation of gender roles for women. In her essay, Libraries and Liberation: A Feminist View, Bolton discusses the association between the library as an institution perpetuating the female gender stereotype and the stereotype itself when she writes, “the need is to perceive the gender-based shape of libraries as repositories, and as historically evolved agencies alongside the many other patriarchal institutions in European and American communities” (MacCann, 1989, p. 14).

Examining the link between libraries and gender stereotypes from a historical framework only addresses a small aspect of a bigger problem. The problem is not that women occupy the majority of positions in libraries; the problem is that, because of this, librarianship as a profession is not revered the way it should be. Harris discusses why librarianship, as a feminized profession, is construed disapprovingly. She states, “the predominance of women appears as the cause, rather than as the result of the profession’s marginality” (1992, p. 15). She continues by stating that “focusing on the presence of women in female-intensive occupations represents a threat to the already shaky status of these occupations” (1992, p. 13).

The term librarian is sometimes replaced with its euphemism, information professional. This evolution in the discourse and rhetoric of the field reflects a desire to be re-branded. The term librarian is too closely associated with women, and this is being viewed negatively.

Research has indicated that there are indeed different leadership and management styles between men and women, and the research findings are comparable (Carmichael, 1994; Greer, 1992; Appelbaum et al., 2003; McDermott, 1994; Kark, 2004; Trinidad and Normore, 2005; Eagly and Johnson, 2003; Pounder and Coleman, 2002). A 1990 study conducted by Eagly and Johnson on the leadership differences between men and women found that “there is a greater tendency among women leaders to practice a democratic style - participatory decision-making and bi-directional communication [transformational leadership]” (Greer et al., 2001, p. 131). Men, in leadership positions, however, “tend to practice a more autocratic style - sole decision-making and greater use of directive communication [transactional leadership]” (Greer et al., 2001, p. 131).

If men and women lead differently, management styles themselves must also be gendered. Because the leadership styles of women are undervalued, effective management techniques must incorporate a male-centric ideology that encompasses the stereotypical characteristics portrayed by men. On this topic, Appelbaum and Shapiro note, “the concept of management is portrayed as masculinism and characterized by high control, competitive, strategic, unemotional, an analytical approach, rational problem solving, emphasis on winning and managerial effectiveness in terms of financial gains instead of employee satisfaction” (1993, p. 29).

 It is extremely interesting to consider these findings in terms of the differences in information dissemination between men and women, especially when considering the concept of hierarchical management. Eagly and Johnson use the term “bi-directional” to describe how women lead, and the implication is clear. Generally, women are more comfortable leading in a consensus-based style, incorporating as many people as possible into the decision-making process. Instead of implementing a top-down approach to leadership and management, Eagly and Johnson’s findings suggest that women prefer to lead in a collaborative, democratic process.

Disseminating information in a communicative, open approach, as opposed to a more hierarchical one, may cause it to be processed in a more holistic manner. If information is transmitted in a less hierarchical manner, those receiving the information may place more value on it. The way in which that information is being conveyed implies that the person receiving it is equally important in the process – information is not being conveyed on a trickle-down, “need-to-know” basis, and because of this, working relationships between managers and employees are more solid. Lines of communication are broader, trust is formed, and a sense of equality is established.


Feminist theories

In relation to this, gender resistance feminism offers some interesting notions as to why this may be the case. Gender resistance feminism celebrates the differences between men and women instead of advocating for their dismissal: “women have specific experiences and interests that essentially differ from those of the majority of men, at least with regard to how these experiences are formed and enacted under the existing patriarchal conditions” (Kark, 2004, pp. 165-166). Because of these patriarchical conditions, Kark continues, “women’s difficulties in getting promoted to leadership positions cannot be understood in individual terms only, but rather as part of a wider social system of gender…” (2004, p. 166).

This gendered social system affects the ways in which women receive, process, and evaluate information. If we consider gender to be an essentialist ideology (gender differences based on some biological frameworks, but primarily perpetuated through socially learned value systems that place women below men), then women must process the world differently than men do. Everything becomes political – even those things that we consider to be private, like family dynamics, sexuality, and sense of self.

If the physical differences between men and women are directly correlated with learned gender differences, then learning too must be a distinct experience for both men and women. Connected to this is the manner in which men and women disseminate what they have learned, especially when considering what they have learned and why they have learned it. Women’s unique experiences and perspectives can only enhance the dissemination of information, especially in the production of knowledge. It is not only women’s distinct experiences that contribute and add to the production of knowledge, it is also the ways in which they communicate, teach, and disseminate that information. It is the processing of this information that leads to a unique knowledge and an epistemology that cannot be understood by men.


Interview findings

Although men and women do tend to implement different management styles, the stereotypes surrounding these styles are not black and white; there are interstitial spaces that the stereotypes cannot consider. I wanted to examine whether or not the literature discussing stereotypical gender differences in leadership styles was reflective of the experiences of local librarians, so I conducted a series of interviews with three local professionals: a male university librarian, a female university librarian, and a female university business professor who also possesses an MLIS degree [1]. This is a small sample that may not be representative of the wider Library and Information Studies (LIS) community; a larger-scale study needs to be conducted in order to make the findings truly reflective of LIS professionals. These interviews were conducted via e-mail, telephone, and in person. The questions I asked were the same for each individual with one exception, there were different questions relating to gender discrimination. The questions are as follows.

1. Do you find that men and women tend to manage differently? Do men manage in a more top-down or hierarchical manner (transactional leadership)? Do women tend to be more considerate of the personal lives of employees, are they more emotional, and do they tend to incorporate all staff in decision-making (transformational leadership)?

2. In your experience, do these stereotypes tend to be accurate?

3. Although there are more women in library school than men, research shows that there are more men in upper management positions in libraries. Do you find this to be true? Can you offer any insights as to why this occurs?

4. Some literature I’ve been reading discusses “androgynous” leadership styles, combining aspects of both transformational and transactional leaders. Is a combination of typically masculine and feminine gender roles the best way to manage?

5. As a woman, have you ever experienced gender discrimination in the workplace? *This question was only posed to the female interviewees.

6. As a man in a "feminized" profession, have you ever experienced feelings of discrimination in your workplace? Can you comment on any of the gender stereotypes facing male librarians? For example, some findings indicate that there are some patrons who feel uncomfortable with male librarians working in children's reference departments. *This question was only posed to the male interviewee.

The results were similar. In response to questions 1 and 2, all respondents stated that in general, there is a difference in leadership style between men and women. The respondents noted that women are seen to take on a more “holistic approach,” whereas men manage in a more “autocratic” style. One female respondent stated the following: “I believe…that women…use participative decision-making to a greater extent than do men. I have found that men are far more interested in making themselves look good than in achieving objectives in a humane way.”

There are occasions, however, when these stereotypes do not fit the experiences of the professionals I interviewed. For example, the female university librarian said that she enjoys supervising male librarians more than women. She stated that there was a different rapport between them, and she could engage in different discussions because women “tend to take things more personally.” Additionally, she stated that women employees can at times be difficult to work with because they can be “sneaky” and try to undermine authority due to jealousy. This same respondent stated that she had never experienced gender discrimination in the work place.

Similarly, the other female respondent had experienced a stereotypic role reversal: “[I have] always found men to be very understanding when I had to leave to pick up my kids before the daycare closed.… I have seen evidence of professional women who totally lack understanding about this thing – I think their attitude is ‘I’m managing my life, why can’t you do the same?’” Clearly, not all women operate in a manner reflective of transformational leadership.

Reasons for this stereotypic anomaly are worthy of note. Some women may feel that if they exhibit stereotypical feminine qualities, they will not be taken as seriously. Instead, they decide to adopt a more masculine approach in order to be respected. This in itself leads to problems, as studies have shown that people react more negatively to women than men who adopt autocratic and directive leadership styles (Eagly et al., 2003, p. 570). Similarly, men do not always lead in transactional styles. In response to these questions, the male librarian I interviewed provided some interesting insights:

I expect environments, professional cultures, and corporate cultures all play a large role in how managers conduct themselves. The university culture, for example, would be more conducive to managers behaving in a more inclusive and consultative manner…. Librarian managers working in corporate environments, whether male or female, might however well be more transactional in their interactions following the corporate practice.

The male librarian also stated that generally, he would answer yes to questions 1 and 2. In response to question 3, he informed me that within the Canadian Association of Research Libraries, 15 of the directors are women and 12 are men (the source for these statistics is unknown). Although this appears to contradict the findings that men occupy more upper management positions than women, the male librarian qualified these statistics by stating, “given the overall proportion of men in the profession compared to the number of women I would say that men are definitely over-represented in management positions.”

Perceptions of gender discrimination

In addition to strictly feminine and masculine leadership styles, there is also the concept of androgynous leadership. Androgynous leadership is the combination of both stereotypically feminine and stereotypically masculine leadership characteristics displayed in an individual (Appelbaum et al., 2003). Appelbaum et al. indicate that it is the balance of behaviours that is important in androgynous leaders – not a high proportion of both (2003, p. 45). They note that “a possible relationship between androgyny and leader emergence indicates that the possession of feminine characteristics, in balance with masculine ones, may also be important in perceptions of leadership” (2003, p. 45) and that the “emergence of androgynous leaders suggests that the possession of feminine characteristics does not decrease an individual’s chances of emerging as a leader” (2003, p. 45).

On this topic, one of the women I interviewed felt that “at present, there appears to be no gender-neutral model or measure of leadership.” Gender neutrality may not be the aim of androgynous leadership, however. A merging of the favourable characteristics of each leadership style (emotional, non-hierarchical, task-oriented, and goal-driven) may make the best leader, but gender stereotypes can prevent this from being seen as a third alternative due to pre-determined perceptions of how men or women will lead. As Greer et al. note, “female sex stereotypes place women into a double bind situation. Women who adopt stereotypically masculine leadership techniques are sometimes depicted as abrasive and maladjusted. Those who use stereotypically feminine styles…are often seen as ineffective and incompetent as managers” (2001, p. 128).

One of the female professionals I interviewed expressed a similar sentiment. She noted that when men exhibit transformative leadership styles, they are “considered to be excellent leaders,” whereas when women exhibit these traits, they are not given credit because the traits are considered too feminine. There are problems, however, with focusing on the stereotypical differences between the leadership characteristics of men and women. The stereotypes of these differences may themselves obstruct the advancement of women in managerial roles and further alienate the working relationships of men and women in libraries.

It is interesting to consider whether women’s own perceptions of gender discrimination may themselves hinder the advancement of women in the workplace. The notion of a self-fulfilling prophecy comes to mind: if women expect men to be promoted to management positions, then they may not feel that applying for certain promotions would be worthwhile. Furthermore, they may begin to question their abilities as leaders, resulting in feelings of inadequacy and inferiority. The more women expect men to act as leaders, the less opportunity there is for women to take on managerial roles. Consequently, the initial gender discrimination becomes internalized, and women may perpetuate these debasing gender stereotypes without even being conscious of doing so.

Research conducted by Appelbaum and Shaprio indicates that both men and women expect that leadership roles will be held predominantly by men; they state this finding to be “a major issue in this enigma” (1993, p. 30). This puzzling phenomenon is attributed to ingrained, socially learned behaviours enmeshed in tacit knowledge. Individuals are not always able to remember where or when they learned certain behaviours; consequently, these behaviours appear to be automatic.

Both men and women engage in tacit knowledge, which reinforces the gender stereotypes. Ingrained gender stereotyping, and the subsequent display of those stereotypes in society, creates a vicious cycle that is nearly impossible to avoid. Eagly et al. comment on this notion: “the influence of gender roles on organizational behavior occurs, not only because people react to leaders in terms of gendered expectancies and leaders respond in turn, but also because most people have internalized their gender role to some extent” (2003, p. 572).

The problem of men perpetuating the female gender stereotype not only affects women; it also has a negative effect on men themselves. In a 1994 survey, Carmichael interviewed a series of male librarians in the hopes of learning more about male opinions in terms of gender stereotyping. Some of his findings indicate that male librarians perpetuate the negative stereotypes about their female colleagues. One respondent is quoted as saying, “I do think the average man who enters the profession is more devoted to career advancement and willing to accept the sacrifices (like relocation) than the average woman” (Carmichael, 1994, p. 230). It has been noted that one of the predominant stereotypes facing women is that family and other personal issues may directly conflict with work responsibilities (Greer et al., 2001, p. 128). In summarizing his findings, Carmichael states that “some men still harbor prejudice against women as managers…” (1994, p. 227). In relation to how these stereotypes influence the perceptions of male librarians, one respondent noted that “some…women…were very uncomfortable with having a man in the children’s department” (Carmichael, 1994, p. 227).

Men themselves also regularly stereotype the sexual orientation of male librarians. “Male librarians…seem to believe that there is a greater proportion of gay men in the profession than in society at large” (Carmichael, 1994, p. 227). This is a fascinating viewpoint, and I think this stereotype is attributed to the greater stereotype that librarianship is a feminine profession. It implies that if men are interested in being librarians, they must also exhibit traits that are deemed atypical in men: effeminate behaviours and other characteristics that marginalize men.

Although I believe that it is predominantly women who experience greater and more socially ingrained forms of discrimination because of their gender, men too can be victims of gender stereotyping and subsequent marginalization, even by males themselves. The male university librarian I spoke to stated that he has never felt discriminated against because of his gender. However, he does speculate that had he been employed at a public library, his experience may have been different, due to the fact that the “public at large perhaps does see librarianship very much as a feminine profession.”

In terms of whether or not men feel that they have an advantage in attaining management positions than their female colleagues, Carmichael’s findings reveal that 45 percent of the men interviewed deny that they have an advantage in job advancement. This is particularly interesting because 53 percent of the sampled male librarians in Carmichael’s study held upper management positions (1994, p. 229), indicating that the majority of librarians holding administrative positions are indeed men. Whether or not men think they have an advantage, based on Carmichael’s findings, they clearly do.

Despite the fact that there are more women than men in the field of librarianship, the stereotypical gendered leadership styles of women are still undervalued. It is worthwhile to explore this occurrence with a different lens; if there are more women in the field, do typical feminine management characteristics better coincide with library politics? The stereotypical management characteristics of women coincide with effective libraries. Both include a smooth dissemination of information between staff and patrons, a willingness to serve patron needs, and a willingness to provide guidance to users in their many needs. These qualities are important on two levels, between staff relations and between staff/patron relations. According to Greer et al., the attributes of female leadership are aligned with libraries: “[the qualities of] feminine leadership (encouragement of self-development, focus on relationships, participatory decision-making, and recognition of group achievement) are highly consistent with the leadership requirements of the modern library” (2001, p. 133). Sweeny refers to the modern library as “post-hierarchical,” and describes such a space as representing “institutional flexibility…unlimited by the traditional hierarchy, anti-bureaucratic, with empowered cross-functional teams…constant learning, and redefined and re-engineered work process focused on customer service” (Sweeny in Greer et al., 2001, p. 133).

The management team of a library should reflect the diversity of the population using it. In order for a library to truly represent its patrons, women must be a part of upper management. Public libraries in particular serve a diverse patron population, and the majority of users in public libraries are women and children. If women managers are made visible in libraries, other minorities who also feel alienated due to stereotyping may feel that their needs are better represented.

The needs of library users must be properly identified, and a combination of women and men in management positions is better able to identify this than male managers alone. In her article, Who Needs Equal Opportunities? Libraries Do!, McDermott comments on the need for libraries to represent and recognize patron needs: “A management team which reflects the diversity of the community from which users are drawn is better able to understand and cater for the needs of those users. An all male management team is unable to be really sensitive to and aware of major issues affecting the female users…" (1994, p. 11).

Certainly, women should also be equally represented in the management sphere because the similar life experiences among women can solidify patron relationships with libraries, resulting in an increased number of users. If we see libraries as institutions that reflect and celebrate the myriad needs of their various users, then the library, as a social institution, must also recognize and celebrate the differences in managerial skills that men and women offer.


Conclusion

Research has demonstrated that there are differences in men’s and women’s management styles, and these are attributed primarily to socially constructed, patriarchal ideologies that elevate men into positions of power over women. This debasement of women in our society is reinforced not only through gender stereotyping, but also through dominant attitudes that devalue feminine gender stereotypes simply because they are characteristics attributed to women. Both libraries as institutions and librarianship as a profession encapsulate these gender stereotypes. Despite the predominance of women in the field, women still face gender discrimination in libraries, especially when considering that men tend to hold the majority of upper management positions within them.

The ideologies surrounding the differences in management approaches between men and women need to be reflected upon. The skills that men and women bring to the workplace, although for the most part different in approach, are equally valid. The opportunities for women to hold management positions must be increased; the profession of librarianship is transforming, and so too are the perceptions of men and women in the working world. Libraries as social institutions pride themselves on providing equal access to information for demographically wide populations, and librarians are acutely aware of their roles in maintaining this mandate. Where libraries need to become more accountable, however, is in reinforcing the ideology of equal opportunity for all – with particular regard to career advancement for women.


Amanda Bird is currently a graduate student in Dalhousie University’s School of Information Management in Halifax, Nova Scotia. She grew up in Brandon, Manitoba, and graduated from the University of Winnipeg in 2004 with a Bachelor of Arts Degree in Honours English. While completing her undergraduate degree, Amanda developed an interest in Feminist literary theory, and is fascinated by the politics surrounding the feminization of librarianship as a profession. This paper was originally written for the class INFO 5500 – Information in Society.
Notes

1. To respect the wishes of all three individuals interviewed, their names and places of employment will remain anonymous.  I will say, however, that all three are currently employed at different universities in Halifax.

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Copyright © 2005-2007 School of Information Management



The Under Representation of Women in a "Feminized Profession": gender stereotyping, management politics, and the dissemination of information by Amanda Bird
Dalhousie Journal of Information and Management, volume 3, number 1 (Winter 2007)