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Introduction
The
importance of libraries in our society cannot be argued; as social
institutions, libraries function as places of learning where everyone is
welcome to browse the book stacks, read for pleasure, conduct research,
use the computers, and form communities. Libraries are safe spaces;
patrons are free to take advantage of the wealth of resources found in
libraries without fear of judgment or of personal safety. Libraries
serve a wide spectrum of the population; depending on the type of
library (public, academic, or special), users can range from business
professionals to students, from the elderly to children, and from
families to marginalized groups such as the illiterate, homeless,
unemployed, and the mentally ill.
Although libraries serve wide populations of people, as institutions,
they have been labeled as “feminine” because the predominant public
perception is that librarians are mainly women. The perception
that librarianship is a “feminized” profession is not baseless: the
majority of librarians are women, as are the majority of individuals
studying to receive Master of Library and Information Studies (MLIS)
degrees.
Despite the fact that women dominate the library workforce, male
librarians hold the majority of upper management positions within
libraries. This phenomenon can be attributed to the fact that there are
learned gender behaviours that differentiate men and women. In
connection with this, there are stereotypical differences in how men and
women act as leaders in upper management roles. Based on gender role
differences between men and women, this paper will explore the reasons
behind these distinctions, examine how and why they undervalue the work
of women, and in connection with this, investigate whether women
disseminate information differently than men.
Gender role stereotyping and feminized professions
Gender role stereotyping and feminized professions are directly
connected, as each stereotype is integral to the perpetuation of the
other. Librarianship is not the only feminized profession; women are
also predominantly associated with teaching and nursing, and all three
professions share similar characteristics. Generally, these professions
require women to be caregivers, to educate, to chaperone children, to
exhibit unyielding patience, and to be subservient. This is similar to
the roles that women played as housewives prior to the majority of women
vacating the sole roles of wife and mother and entering the workforce.
The transition of women leaving the home and entering the work force was
cushioned by similar expectations of women both inside and outside of
the home. On this topic, Northy writes, “The movement from home to
librarianship was seen as a genteel calling and an extension of women’s
traditional role because it involved service, transmittal of societal
values and culture, focus on the individual and attention to detail”
(Greer et al., 2001, p. 127).
The roles of working women have been undervalued, as have the
stereotypical values associated with femininity: patience, acquiescence,
horizontal consensus (opposed to vertical hierarchies, which are
associated with men), and the need for validation. This devaluation of
women and of the roles of women in the workforce is not due to socially
constructed biological inadequacies in “femininity;” the devaluation of
women is due to patriarchal ideologies. In her book Librarianship:
The Erosion of a Woman’s Profession, Harris quotes Benner, who
states:
Disparaging women for what they
bring to their work and encouraging them to improve themselves for
the sake of their professions is based upon the misguided assumption
that feminine values have kept women and their fields subservient,
rather than recognizing that society’s devaluing of and
discrimination against women are the sources of the problem. The
former view…blames the victim and promises that discrimination will
stop when women abandon what they value and learn to play the power
games like men do. (1992, p. 68)
Gender role stereotyping and management styles
Gender stereotypes are not only relevant to why women enter the
field of librarianship and why the profession itself is considered
“feminine,” they are also integral to the different management styles
exhibited by men and women, providing a lens through which to critically
examine the discrepancy between the high number of women in the field
and the under-representation of women in management positions. Despite
the fact that most librarians are women, women do not hold the majority
of management positions in libraries. Women hold only 32.3 percent of
managerial and professional jobs in Canada, and they occupy less than
five percent of senior management positions (Appelbaum and
Shapiro, 1993, p. 28).
In their article, Leadership & Gender: A Dangerous Liaison?,
Trinidad and Normore discuss the interrelationship of gender roles and
identity: “The construct of gender implies the way meaning associates
with sex in members of a culture in terms of expected learned behaviors,
traits, and attitudes” (2005, p. 576). Gender differences may not only
be taught; there are other hypotheses about the gender differences
between men and women. Appelbaum et al. note:
Research has produced various
theories: whether or not the approach to leadership differs between
men and women as distinctive biological groups; whether this
difference is one of style or substance; whether it is real or
perceived; whether one leadership approach is more or less effective
than the other and which is more likely to lead to success. (2003,
p. 44)
Feminist theories provide rich frameworks from which to view the
connections between libraries and the perpetuation of gender roles for
women. In her essay, Libraries and Liberation: A Feminist View,
Bolton discusses the association between the library as an institution
perpetuating the female gender stereotype and the stereotype itself when
she writes, “the need is to perceive the gender-based shape of libraries
as repositories, and as historically evolved agencies alongside the many
other patriarchal institutions in European and American communities” (MacCann,
1989, p. 14).
Examining the link between libraries and gender stereotypes from a
historical framework only addresses a small aspect of a bigger problem.
The problem is not that women occupy the majority of positions in
libraries; the problem is that, because of this, librarianship as a
profession is not revered the way it should be. Harris discusses why
librarianship, as a feminized profession, is construed disapprovingly.
She states, “the predominance of women appears as the cause,
rather than as the result of the profession’s marginality” (1992,
p. 15). She continues by stating that “focusing on the presence of women
in female-intensive occupations represents a threat to the already shaky
status of these occupations” (1992, p. 13).
The term librarian is sometimes replaced with its euphemism,
information professional. This evolution in the discourse and
rhetoric of the field reflects a desire to be re-branded. The term
librarian is too closely associated with women, and this is being viewed
negatively.
Research has indicated that there are indeed different leadership and
management styles between men and women, and the research findings are
comparable (Carmichael, 1994; Greer, 1992; Appelbaum et al.,
2003; McDermott, 1994; Kark, 2004; Trinidad and Normore, 2005; Eagly and
Johnson, 2003; Pounder and Coleman, 2002). A 1990 study conducted by
Eagly and Johnson on the leadership differences between men and women
found that “there is a greater tendency among women leaders to practice
a democratic style - participatory decision-making and bi-directional
communication [transformational leadership]” (Greer et al., 2001,
p. 131). Men, in leadership positions, however, “tend to practice a more
autocratic style - sole decision-making and greater use of directive
communication [transactional leadership]” (Greer et al., 2001, p.
131).
If men and women lead differently, management styles themselves must
also be gendered. Because the leadership styles of women are
undervalued, effective management techniques must incorporate a
male-centric ideology that encompasses the stereotypical characteristics
portrayed by men. On this topic, Appelbaum and Shapiro note, “the
concept of management is portrayed as masculinism and characterized by
high control, competitive, strategic, unemotional, an analytical
approach, rational problem solving, emphasis on winning and managerial
effectiveness in terms of financial gains instead of employee
satisfaction” (1993, p. 29).
It is extremely interesting to consider these findings in terms of the
differences in information dissemination between men and women,
especially when considering the concept of hierarchical management.
Eagly and Johnson use the term “bi-directional” to describe how women
lead, and the implication is clear. Generally, women are more
comfortable leading in a consensus-based style, incorporating as many
people as possible into the decision-making process. Instead of
implementing a top-down approach to leadership and management, Eagly and
Johnson’s findings suggest that women prefer to lead in a collaborative,
democratic process.
Disseminating information in a communicative, open approach, as opposed
to a more hierarchical one, may cause it to be processed in a more
holistic manner. If information is transmitted in a less hierarchical
manner, those receiving the information may place more value on it. The
way in which that information is being conveyed implies that the person
receiving it is equally important in the process – information is not
being conveyed on a trickle-down, “need-to-know” basis, and because of
this, working relationships between managers and employees are more
solid. Lines of communication are broader, trust is formed, and a sense
of equality is established.
Feminist theories
In relation to this,
gender resistance feminism offers some interesting notions as to why
this may be the case. Gender resistance feminism celebrates the
differences between men and women instead of advocating for their
dismissal: “women have specific experiences and interests that
essentially differ from those of the majority of men, at least with
regard to how these experiences are formed and enacted under the
existing patriarchal conditions” (Kark, 2004, pp. 165-166). Because of
these patriarchical conditions, Kark continues, “women’s difficulties in
getting promoted to leadership positions cannot be understood in
individual terms only, but rather as part of a wider social system of
gender…” (2004, p. 166).
This gendered social system affects the ways in which women receive,
process, and evaluate information. If we consider gender to be an
essentialist ideology (gender differences based on some biological
frameworks, but primarily perpetuated through socially learned value
systems that place women below men), then women must process the world
differently than men do. Everything becomes political – even those
things that we consider to be private, like family dynamics, sexuality,
and sense of self.
If the physical differences between men and women are directly
correlated with learned gender differences, then learning too must be a
distinct experience for both men and women. Connected to this is the
manner in which men and women disseminate what they have learned,
especially when considering what they have learned and why
they have learned it. Women’s unique experiences and perspectives can
only enhance the dissemination of information, especially in the
production of knowledge. It is not only women’s distinct experiences
that contribute and add to the production of knowledge, it is also the
ways in which they communicate, teach, and disseminate that information.
It is the processing of this information that leads to a unique
knowledge and an epistemology that cannot be understood by men.
Interview
findings
Although men and women do tend to implement different management styles,
the stereotypes surrounding these styles are not black and white; there
are interstitial spaces that the stereotypes cannot consider. I wanted
to examine whether or not the literature discussing stereotypical gender
differences in leadership styles was reflective of the experiences of
local librarians, so I conducted a series of interviews with three local
professionals: a male university librarian, a female university
librarian, and a female university business professor who also possesses
an MLIS degree [1]. This is a small sample
that may not be representative of the wider Library and Information
Studies (LIS) community; a larger-scale study needs to be conducted in
order to make the findings truly reflective of LIS professionals. These
interviews were conducted via e-mail, telephone, and in person. The
questions I asked were the same for each individual with one exception,
there were different questions relating to gender discrimination. The
questions are as follows.
1. Do you find that men and women tend to
manage differently? Do men manage in a more top-down or hierarchical
manner (transactional leadership)? Do women tend to be more considerate
of the personal lives of employees, are they more emotional, and do they
tend to incorporate all staff in decision-making (transformational
leadership)?
2. In your experience, do
these stereotypes tend to be accurate?
3. Although there are more
women in library school than men, research shows that there are more men
in upper management positions in libraries. Do you find this to be true?
Can you offer any insights as to why this occurs?
4. Some literature I’ve
been reading discusses “androgynous” leadership styles, combining
aspects of both transformational and transactional leaders. Is a
combination of typically masculine and feminine gender roles the best
way to manage?
5. As a woman, have you
ever experienced gender discrimination in the workplace? *This
question was only posed to the female interviewees.
6. As a man in a
"feminized" profession, have you ever experienced feelings of
discrimination in your workplace? Can you comment on any of the gender
stereotypes facing male librarians? For example, some findings indicate
that there are some patrons who feel uncomfortable with male librarians
working in children's reference departments. *This question was only
posed to the male interviewee.
The results were similar. In response to questions 1 and 2, all
respondents stated that in general, there is a difference in leadership
style between men and women. The respondents noted that women are seen
to take on a more “holistic approach,” whereas men manage in a more
“autocratic” style. One female respondent stated the following: “I
believe…that women…use participative decision-making to a greater extent
than do men. I have found that men are far more interested in making
themselves look good than in achieving objectives in a humane way.”
There are occasions, however, when these stereotypes do not fit the
experiences of the professionals I interviewed. For example, the female
university librarian said that she enjoys supervising male librarians
more than women. She stated that there was a different rapport between
them, and she could engage in different discussions because women “tend
to take things more personally.” Additionally, she stated that women
employees can at times be difficult to work with because they can be
“sneaky” and try to undermine authority due to jealousy. This same
respondent stated that she had never experienced gender discrimination
in the work place.
Similarly, the other female respondent had experienced a stereotypic
role reversal: “[I have] always found men to be very understanding when
I had to leave to pick up my kids before the daycare closed.… I have
seen evidence of professional women who totally lack understanding about
this thing – I think their attitude is ‘I’m managing my life, why can’t
you do the same?’” Clearly, not all women operate in a manner reflective
of transformational leadership.
Reasons for this stereotypic anomaly are worthy of note. Some women may
feel that if they exhibit stereotypical feminine qualities, they will
not be taken as seriously. Instead, they decide to adopt a more
masculine approach in order to be respected. This in itself leads to
problems, as studies have shown that people react more negatively to
women than men who adopt autocratic and directive leadership styles (Eagly
et al., 2003, p. 570). Similarly, men do not always lead in
transactional styles. In response to these questions, the male librarian
I interviewed provided some interesting insights:
I expect environments,
professional cultures, and corporate cultures all play a large role
in how managers conduct themselves. The university culture, for
example, would be more conducive to managers behaving in a more
inclusive and consultative manner…. Librarian managers working in
corporate environments, whether male or female, might however well
be more transactional in their interactions following the corporate
practice.
The male librarian also
stated that generally, he would answer yes to questions 1 and 2. In
response to question 3, he informed me that within the Canadian
Association of Research Libraries, 15 of the directors are women and 12
are men (the source for these statistics is unknown). Although this
appears to contradict the findings that men occupy more upper management
positions than women, the male librarian qualified these statistics by
stating, “given the overall proportion of men in the profession compared
to the number of women I would say that men are definitely
over-represented in management positions.”
Perceptions of gender discrimination
In addition to strictly feminine and masculine leadership styles, there
is also the concept of androgynous leadership. Androgynous leadership is
the combination of both stereotypically feminine and stereotypically
masculine leadership characteristics displayed in an individual (Appelbaum
et al., 2003). Appelbaum et al. indicate that it is the
balance of behaviours that is important in androgynous leaders – not
a high proportion of both (2003, p. 45). They note that “a possible
relationship between androgyny and leader emergence indicates that the
possession of feminine characteristics, in balance with masculine ones,
may also be important in perceptions of leadership” (2003, p. 45) and
that the “emergence of androgynous leaders suggests that the possession
of feminine characteristics does not decrease an individual’s chances of
emerging as a leader” (2003, p. 45).
On this topic, one of the women I interviewed felt that “at present,
there appears to be no gender-neutral model or measure of leadership.”
Gender neutrality may not be the aim of androgynous leadership, however.
A merging of the favourable characteristics of each leadership style
(emotional, non-hierarchical, task-oriented, and goal-driven) may make
the best leader, but gender stereotypes can prevent this from being seen
as a third alternative due to pre-determined perceptions of how men or
women will lead. As Greer et al. note, “female sex stereotypes
place women into a double bind situation. Women who adopt
stereotypically masculine leadership techniques are sometimes depicted
as abrasive and maladjusted. Those who use stereotypically feminine
styles…are often seen as ineffective and incompetent as managers” (2001,
p. 128).
One of the female professionals I interviewed expressed a similar
sentiment. She noted that when men exhibit transformative leadership
styles, they are “considered to be excellent leaders,” whereas when
women exhibit these traits, they are not given credit because the traits
are considered too feminine. There are problems, however, with focusing
on the stereotypical differences between the leadership characteristics
of men and women. The stereotypes of these differences may themselves
obstruct the advancement of women in managerial roles and further
alienate the working relationships of men and women in libraries.
It is interesting to consider whether women’s own perceptions of gender
discrimination may themselves hinder the advancement of women in the
workplace. The notion of a self-fulfilling prophecy comes to mind: if
women expect men to be promoted to management positions, then they may
not feel that applying for certain promotions would be worthwhile.
Furthermore, they may begin to question their abilities as leaders,
resulting in feelings of inadequacy and inferiority. The more women
expect men to act as leaders, the less opportunity there is for women to
take on managerial roles. Consequently, the initial gender
discrimination becomes internalized, and women may perpetuate these
debasing gender stereotypes without even being conscious of doing so.
Research conducted by Appelbaum and Shaprio indicates that both men and
women expect that leadership roles will be held predominantly by men;
they state this finding to be “a major issue in this enigma” (1993, p.
30). This puzzling phenomenon is attributed to ingrained, socially
learned behaviours enmeshed in tacit knowledge. Individuals are not
always able to remember where or when they learned certain behaviours;
consequently, these behaviours appear to be automatic.
Both men and women engage in tacit knowledge, which reinforces the
gender stereotypes. Ingrained gender stereotyping, and the subsequent
display of those stereotypes in society, creates a vicious cycle that is
nearly impossible to avoid. Eagly et al. comment on this notion:
“the influence of gender roles on organizational behavior occurs, not
only because people react to leaders in terms of gendered expectancies
and leaders respond in turn, but also because most people have
internalized their gender role to some extent” (2003, p. 572).
The problem of men perpetuating the female gender stereotype not only
affects women; it also has a negative effect on men themselves. In a
1994 survey, Carmichael interviewed a series of male librarians in the
hopes of learning more about male opinions in terms of gender
stereotyping. Some of his findings indicate that male librarians
perpetuate the negative stereotypes about their female colleagues. One
respondent is quoted as saying, “I do think the average man who enters
the profession is more devoted to career advancement and willing to
accept the sacrifices (like relocation) than the average woman”
(Carmichael, 1994, p. 230). It has been noted that one of the
predominant stereotypes facing women is that family and other personal
issues may directly conflict with work responsibilities (Greer et al.,
2001, p. 128). In summarizing his findings, Carmichael states that “some
men still harbor prejudice against women as managers…” (1994, p. 227).
In relation to how these stereotypes influence the perceptions of male
librarians, one respondent noted that “some…women…were very
uncomfortable with having a man in the children’s department”
(Carmichael, 1994, p. 227).
Men themselves also regularly stereotype the sexual orientation of male
librarians. “Male librarians…seem to believe that there is a greater
proportion of gay men in the profession than in society at large”
(Carmichael, 1994, p. 227). This is a fascinating viewpoint, and I think
this stereotype is attributed to the greater stereotype that
librarianship is a feminine profession. It implies that if men are
interested in being librarians, they must also exhibit traits that are
deemed atypical in men: effeminate behaviours and other characteristics
that marginalize men.
Although I believe that it is predominantly women who experience greater
and more socially ingrained forms of discrimination because of their
gender, men too can be victims of gender stereotyping and subsequent
marginalization, even by males themselves. The male university librarian
I spoke to stated that he has never felt discriminated against because
of his gender. However, he does speculate that had he been employed at a
public library, his experience may have been different, due to the fact
that the “public at large perhaps does see librarianship very much as a
feminine profession.”
In terms of whether or not men feel that they have an advantage in
attaining management positions than their female colleagues,
Carmichael’s findings reveal that 45 percent of the men interviewed deny
that they have an advantage in job advancement. This is particularly
interesting because 53 percent of the sampled male librarians in
Carmichael’s study held upper management positions (1994, p. 229),
indicating that the majority of librarians holding administrative
positions are indeed men. Whether or not men think they have an
advantage, based on Carmichael’s findings, they clearly do.
Despite the fact that there are more women than men in the field of
librarianship, the stereotypical gendered leadership styles of women are
still undervalued. It is worthwhile to explore this occurrence with a
different lens; if there are more women in the field, do typical
feminine management characteristics better coincide with library
politics? The stereotypical management characteristics of women coincide
with effective libraries. Both include a smooth dissemination of
information between staff and patrons, a willingness to serve patron
needs, and a willingness to provide guidance to users in their many
needs. These qualities are important on two levels, between staff
relations and between staff/patron relations. According to Greer et
al., the attributes of female leadership are aligned with libraries:
“[the qualities of] feminine leadership (encouragement of
self-development, focus on relationships, participatory decision-making,
and recognition of group achievement) are highly consistent with the
leadership requirements of the modern library” (2001, p. 133). Sweeny
refers to the modern library as “post-hierarchical,” and describes such
a space as representing “institutional flexibility…unlimited by the
traditional hierarchy, anti-bureaucratic, with empowered
cross-functional teams…constant learning, and redefined and
re-engineered work process focused on customer service” (Sweeny in Greer
et al., 2001, p. 133).
The management team of a library should reflect the diversity of the
population using it. In order for a library to truly represent its
patrons, women must be a part of upper management. Public libraries in
particular serve a diverse patron population, and the majority of users
in public libraries are women and children. If women managers are made
visible in libraries, other minorities who also feel alienated due to
stereotyping may feel that their needs are better represented.
The needs of library users must be properly identified, and a
combination of women and men in management positions is better able to
identify this than male managers alone. In her article, Who Needs
Equal Opportunities? Libraries Do!, McDermott comments on the need
for libraries to represent and recognize patron needs: “A management
team which reflects the diversity of the community from which users are
drawn is better able to understand and cater for the needs of those
users. An all male management team is unable to be really sensitive to
and aware of major issues affecting the female users…" (1994, p. 11).
Certainly, women should also be equally represented in the management
sphere because the similar life experiences among women can solidify
patron relationships with libraries, resulting in an increased number of
users. If we see libraries as institutions that reflect and celebrate
the myriad needs of their various users, then the library, as a social
institution, must also recognize and celebrate the differences in
managerial skills that men and women offer.
Conclusion
Research has demonstrated that there are differences in men’s and
women’s management styles, and these are attributed primarily to
socially constructed, patriarchal ideologies that elevate men into
positions of power over women. This debasement of women in our society
is reinforced not only through gender stereotyping, but also through
dominant attitudes that devalue feminine gender stereotypes simply
because they are characteristics attributed to women. Both libraries as
institutions and librarianship as a profession encapsulate these gender
stereotypes. Despite the predominance of women in the field, women still
face gender discrimination in libraries, especially when considering
that men tend to hold the majority of upper management positions within
them.
The ideologies surrounding the differences in management approaches
between men and women need to be reflected upon. The skills that men and
women bring to the workplace, although for the most part different in
approach, are equally valid. The opportunities for women to hold
management positions must be increased; the profession of librarianship
is transforming, and so too are the perceptions of men and women in the
working world. Libraries as social institutions pride themselves on
providing equal access to information for demographically wide
populations, and librarians are acutely aware of their roles in
maintaining this mandate. Where libraries need to become more
accountable, however, is in reinforcing the ideology of equal
opportunity for all – with particular regard to career advancement for
women.
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