Using the Biopsychosocial Framework to Address the Ongoing Impacts of the Indian Residential School System and Colonization in Canadian Health Care Systems
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.15273/hpj.v3i4.11602Keywords:
residential schools, trauma, generations, Indigenous, health, social, attachmentAbstract
Traumatic experiences during childhood can have significant, detrimental impacts on physical and mental health and negatively impact social functioning in adulthood. Such an understanding is imperative to providing adequate and well-informed health care to Indigenous populations residing on the land now called Canada. The Indian Residential School (IRS) system, which was in operation for over one hundred years, was one of the most violent colonial tactics implemented by Canada's federal government. This system was conceptualized to forcibly alienate Indigenous children from their families, communities, and culture to eradicate Indigenous culture and identity. Combined with witnessing violent acts perpetrated by colonizers against members of their community, the shared experience of being abducted from their families, and suffering physical, mental, emotional, and sexual abuse, led to widespread trauma amongst Indigenous people for generations. It is expected that such trauma has resulted in disruptions in attachment, social functioning and emotional development in individuals who survived the Indian Residential School system, thus potentially triggering a cascade of maladaptive, trauma-related behaviours through subsequent generations (termed intergenerational trauma). These writers recommend that healthcare providers consult a biopsychological framework when engaging with Indigenous individuals, especially Indian Residential School survivors and their relatives, as it emphasizes the multidirectional relationship between psychological, biological, and experiential factors implicated in an individual's well-being. Furthermore, such a framework may aid in contextualizing an individual's unique challenges within the broader scope of colonization.
References
Allan, B., & Smylie, J. (2015). First Peoples, second class treatment: The role of racism in the health and well-being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada: Executive summary. The Wellesley Institute. https://www.wellesleyinstitute.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Summary-First-Peoples-Second-Class-Treatment-Final.pdf
Álvarez, A. S., Pagani, M., & Meucci, P. (2012). The clinical application of the biopsychosocial model in mental health. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, 91(Suppl 1 13), S173–S180. https://doi.org/10.1097/phm.0b013e31823d54be
Arnold, D. (2002). The age of discovery, 1400–1600 (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Asselmann, E., Stender, J., Grabe, H. J., König, J., Schmidt, C. O., Hamm, A. O., & Pané-Farré, C. A. (2018). Assessing the interplay of childhood adversities with more recent stressful life events and conditions in predicting panic pathology among adults from the general population. Journal of Affective Disorders, 225, 715–722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.08.050
Baldwin, J. A., Brown, B. G., Wayment, H. A., Nez, R. A., & Brelsford, K. M. (2011). Culture and context: Buffering the relationship between stressful life events and risky behaviors in American Indian youth. Substance Use & Misuse, 46(11), 1380–1394. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826084.2011.592432
Barnes, R., Josefowitz, N., & Cole, E. (2006). Residential schools: Impact on Aboriginal students’ academic and cognitive development. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 21(1–2), 18–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573506298751
Barnes, R., & Josefowitz, N. (2019). Indian residential schools in Canada: Persistent impacts on Aboriginal students’ psychological development and functioning. Canadian Psychology, 60(2), 65–76. https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000154
Bartlett, R. H. (1978). The Indian Act of Canada. Buffalo Law Review, 27(4), 581–616. https://digitalcommons.law.buffalo.edu/buffalolawreview/vol27/iss4/3
Beaumier, M. C., & Ford, J. D. (2010). Food insecurity among Inuit women exacerbated by socio-economic stresses and climate change. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 101(3), 196–201. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03404373
Berger, M., Leicht, A., Slatcher, A., Kraeuter, A. K., Ketheesan, S., Larkins, S., & Sarnyai, Z. (2017). Cortisol awakening response and acute stress reactivity in First Nations people. Scientific Reports, 7, Article 41760. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep41760
Bohman, H., Låftman, S. B., Päären, A., & Jonsson, U. (2017). Parental separation in childhood as a risk factor for depression in adulthood: A community-based study of adolescents screened for depression and followed up after 15 years. BMC Psychiatry, 17, Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1252-z
Boles, K. (2021). Childhood adversity and functional impairment in emerging adulthood: The role of executive function [Master’s thesis, Lakehead University]. Lakehead University Library Knowledge Commons. https://knowledgecommons.lakeheadu.ca/bitstream/handle/2453/4863/BolesK2021m-1a.pdf
Bombay, A., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2010). Decomposing identity: Differential relationships between several aspects of ethnic identity and the negative effects of perceived discrimination among First Nations adults in Canada. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16(4), 507–516. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021373
Bombay, A., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2011). The impact of stressors on second generation Indian residential school survivors. Transcultural Psychiatry, 48(4), 367–391. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461511410240
Bombay, A., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2014a). Appraisals of discriminatory events among adult offspring of Indian residential school survivors: The influences of identity centrality and past perceptions of discrimination. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20(1), 75–86. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033352
Bombay, A., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2014b). The intergenerational effects of Indian residential schools: Implications for the concept of historical trauma. Transcultural Psychiatry, 51(3), 320–338. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461513503380
Bombay, A., McQuaid, R. J., Schwartz, F., Thomas, A., Anisman, H., & Matheson, K. (2019). Suicidal thoughts and attempts in First Nations communities: Links to parental Indian residential school attendance across development. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease, 10(1), 123–131. https://doi.org/10.1017/s2040174418000405
Broll, R., Dunlop, C., & Crooks, C. V. (2018). Cyberbullying and internalizing difficulties among Indigenous adolescents in Canada: Beyond the effect of traditional bullying. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 11(1), 71–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-017-0163-y
Bryant, R. A., Creamer, M., O’Donnell, M., Forbes, D., Felmingham, K. L., Silove, D., Malhi, G., van Hoof, M., McFarlane, A. C., & Nickerson, A. (2017). Separation from parents during childhood trauma predicts adult attachment security and post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine, 47(11), 2028–2035. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291717000472
Burrage, R. L., Momper, S. L., & Gone, J. P. (2022). Beyond trauma: Decolonizing understandings of loss and healing in the Indian residential school system of Canada. Journal of Social Issues, 78(1), 27–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12455
Cabral, M. D., & Patel, D. R. (2020). Risk factors and prevention strategies for anxiety disorders in childhood and adolescence. In Y.-K. Kim (Ed.), Anxiety disorders: Rethinking and understanding recent discoveries (pp. 543–559). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9705-0_27
Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.). (2018). Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.
Chief Moon-Riley, K., Copeland, J. L., Metz, G. A. S., & Currie, C. L. (2019). The biological impacts of Indigenous residential school attendance on the next generation. SSM – Population Health, 7, Article 100343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2018.100343
Chrousos, G. (2000). The role of stress and the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis in the pathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome: Neuro-endocrine and target tissue-related causes. International Journal of Obesity, 24(S2), S50–S55. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0801278
Claes, R., & Clifton, D. (1998, October 23). Needs and expectations for redress of victims of abuse at residential schools. DalSpace Institutional Repository. https://dalspace.library.dal.ca/bitstream/handle/10222/10440/Sage%20Research%20Redress%20EN.pdf
Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54(10), 805–816. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.10.805
Coffino, B. (2009). The role of childhood parent figure loss in the etiology of adult depression: Findings from a prospective longitudinal study. Attachment & Human Development, 11(5), 445–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730903135993
Cohen, J. A., Mannarino, A. P., Kliethermes, M., & Murray, L. A. (2012). Trauma-focused CBT for youth with complex trauma. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36(6), 528–541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2012.03.007
Coleman, D., Glanville, E. G., Hasan, W., & Kramer-Hamstra, A. (Eds.). (2012). Countering displacements: The creativity and resilience of Indigenous and refugee-ed Peoples. University of Alberta.
Crengle, S., Robinson, E., Ameratunga, S., Clark, T., & Raphael, D. (2012). Ethnic discrimination prevalence and associations with health outcomes: Data from a nationally representative cross-sectional survey of secondary school students in New Zealand. BMC Public Health, 12, Article 45. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-45
Dapice, A. N. (2006). The medicine wheel. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 17(3), 251–260. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043659606288383
Davison, B., Nagel, T., & Singh, G. R. (2017). Life, lifestyle and location: Examining the complexities of psychological distress in young adult Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease, 8(5), 541–549. https://doi.org/10.1017/s2040174417000162
Davison, B., Singh, G. R., & McFarlane, J. (2019). Hair cortisol and cortisone as markers of stress in Indigenous and non-Indigenous young adults. Stress, 22(2), 210–220. https://doi.org/10.1080/10253890.2018.1543395
Dunlop, C. I. (2016). Bullying experiences among First Nations youth: Identifying effects on mental health and potential protective factors [Master’s thesis, Western University]. Western Libraries Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository. https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd/3717
Elias, B., Mignone, J., Hall, M., Hong, S. P., Hart, L., & Sareen, J. (2012). Trauma and suicide behaviour histories among a Canadian Indigenous population: An empirical exploration of the potential role of Canada’s residential school system. Social Science & Medicine, 74(10), 1560–1569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.01.026
Engel, G. L. (1977). The need for a new medical model: A challenge for biomedicine. Science, 196(4286), 129–136. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.847460
Evans, J. M. M., Newton, R. W., Ruta, D. A., MacDonald, T. M., & Morris, A. D. (2000). Socio-economic status, obesity and prevalence of Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetic Medicine, 17(6), 478–480. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1464-5491.2000.00309.x
Facing History and Ourselves Canada. (2019, September 20). The residential school experience: Reading 8, Resistance. https://www.facinghistory.org/stolen-lives-Indigenous-peoples-canada-and-indian-residential-schools/chapter-4/resistance
Fijal, D., & Beagan, B. L. (2019). Indigenous perspectives on health: Integration with a Canadian model of practice. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 86(3), 220–231. https://doi.org/10.1177/0008417419832284
First Nations Health Authority. (2019). First Nations regional health survey: Phase 3 (2015–17). https://fnigc.ca/online-library/?wpv_aux_current_post_id=409&wpv_aux_parent_post_id=409&wpv_view_count=516&wpv-publication-topic%5B%5D=first-nations-regional-health-survey-phase-3
First Nations Information Governance Centre. (2018a, March 14). New report provides unprecedented look at trends over time in the health and well-being of First Nations communities [Press release]. https://fnigc.ca/news/new-report-provides-unprecedented-look-at-trends-over-time-in-the-health-and-well-being-of-first-nations-communities/
First Nations Information Governance Centre. (2018b, July 24). Final volume of landmark report explores health care, language, culture, food security in First Nations communities [Press release]. https://fnigc.ca/news/final-volume-of-landmark-report-explores-health-care-language-culture-food-security-in-first-nations-communities/
Ford, J. D. (2012). Indigenous health and climate change. American Journal of Public Health, 102(7), 1260–1266. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2012.300752
Frohlich, K. L., Ross, N., & Richmond, C. (2006). Health disparities in Canada today: Some evidence and a theoretical framework. Health Policy, 79(2–3), 132–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthpol.2005.12.010
Gamby, K., Burns, D., & Forristal, K. (2021). Wellness decolonized: The history of wellness and recommendations for the counseling field. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 43(3), 228–245. https://doi.org/10.17744/mehc.43.3.05
Glaros, A. G., Marszalek, J. M., & Williams, K. B. (2016). Longitudinal multilevel modeling of facial pain, muscle tension, and stress. Journal of Dental Research, 95(4), 416–422. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022034515625216
Haig-Brown, C. (1988). Resistance and renewal: Surviving the Indian residential school. Arsenal Pulp Press.
Hajizadeh, M., Bombay, A., & Asada, Y. (2019). Socioeconomic inequalities in psychological distress and suicidal behaviours among Indigenous Peoples living off-reserve in Canada. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 191(12), E325–E336. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.181374
Hovens, J. G. F. M., Giltay, E. J., Spinhoven, P., Van Hemert, A. M., & Penninx, B. W. J. H. (2015). Impact of childhood life events and childhood trauma on the onset and recurrence of depressive and anxiety disorders. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 76(7), 931–938. https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.14m09135
Indian Act, RSC 1985, c I-5.
Joseph, B. (2018). 21 things you may not know about the Indian Act: Helping Canadians make reconciliation with Indigenous Peoples a reality. Indigenous Relations Press.
Juruena, M. F., Eror, F., Cleare, A. J., & Young, A. H. (2020). The role of early life stress in HPA axis and anxiety. In Y.-K. Kim (Ed.), Anxiety disorders: Rethinking and understanding recent discoveries, (pp. 141–153). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9705-0_9
Kaler, S. N., Ralph-Campbell, K., Pohar, S., King, M., Laboucan, R., & Toth, E. (2006). High rates of the metabolic syndrome in a First Nations Community in western Canada: Prevalence and determinants in adults and children. International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 65(5), 389–402. https://doi.org/10.3402/ijch.v65i5.18139
Kaspar, V. (2014). The lifetime effect of residential school attendance on Indigenous health status. American Journal of Public Health, 104(11), 2184–2190. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2013.301479
King, M., Smith, A., & Gracey, M. (2009). Indigenous health part 2: The underlying causes of the health gap. The Lancet, 374(9683), 76–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(09)60827-8
Kirmayer, L. J., & Valaskakis, G. G. (Eds.). (2009). Healing traditions: The mental health of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. UBC Press.
Kwong, T. Y., & Hayes, D. K. (2017). Adverse family experiences and flourishing amongst children ages 6–17 years: 2011/12 National Survey of Children’s Health. Child Abuse & Neglect, 70, 240–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.06.016
Lackova Rebicova, M., Dankulincova Veselska, Z., Husarova, D., Madarasova Geckova, A., van Dijk, J. P., & Reijneveld, S. A. (2019). The number of adverse childhood experiences is associated with emotional and behavioral problems among adolescents. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(13), Article 2446. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16132446
Ladd, C. O., Huot, R. L., Thrivikraman, K. V., Nemeroff, C. B., Meaney, M. J., & Plotsky, P. M. (2000). Chapter 7: Long-term behavioral and neuroendocrine adaptations to adverse early experience. Progress in Brain Research, 122, 81–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6123(08)62132-9
Lähdepuro, A., Savolainen, K., Lahti-Pulkkinen, M., Eriksson, J. G., Lahti, J., Tuovinen, S., Kajantie, E., Pesonen, A.-K., Heinonen, K., & Räikkönen, K. (2019). The impact of early life stress on anxiety symptoms in late adulthood. Scientific Reports, 9, Article 4395. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-40698-0
Lawrence, T. J., & James, R. D. (2019). Good health and wellness: Measuring impact through an Indigenous lens. Preventing Chronic Disease, 16, Article E108. https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd16.180655
Lehrner, A., & Yehuda, R. (2018). Trauma across generations and paths to adaptation and resilience. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 10(1), 22–29. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000302
Lemstra, M., Rogers, M., Redgate, L., Garner, M., & Moraros, J. (2011). Prevalence, risk indicators and outcomes of bullying among on-reserve First Nations youth. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 102(6), 462–466. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03404201
Liu, J., Hanley, A. J. G., Young, T. K., Harris, S. B., & Zinman, B. (2006). Characteristics and prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among three ethnic groups in Canada. International Journal of Obesity, 30(4), 669–676. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0803179
Lo, C. K. M., Chan, K. L., & Ip, P. (2019). Insecure adult attachment and child maltreatment: A meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 20(5), 706–719. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838017730579
Loppie, S., Reading, C., & de Leeuw, S. (2014, July). Indigenous experiences with racism and its impacts. National Collaborating Centre for Indigenous Health. https://www.nccih.ca/495/Aboriginal_experiences_with_racism_and_its_impactS.nccih?id=131
Ma, J., Fallon, B., & Richard, K. (2019). The overrepresentation of First Nations children and families involved with child welfare: Findings from the Ontario Incidence Study of reported child abuse and neglect 2013. Child Abuse & Neglect, 90, 52–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.01.022
MacDonald, N. E., Stanwick, R., & Lynk, A. (2014). Canada’s shameful history of nutrition research on residential school children: The need for strong medical ethics in Aboriginal health research. Paediatrics & Child Health, 19(2), 64. https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/19.2.64
MacMillan, H. L., MacMillan, A. B., Offord, D. R., & Dingle, J. L. (1996). Aboriginal health. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 155(11), 1569–1578.
McNamara, B. J., Banks, E., Gubhaju, L., Joshy, G., Williamson, A., Raphael, B., & Eades, S. (2018). Factors relating to high psychological distress in Indigenous Australians and their contribution to Indigenous–non‐Indigenous disparities. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 42(2), 145–152. https://doi.org/10.1111/1753-6405.12766
McQuaid, R. J., Bombay, A., McInnis, O. A., Humeny, C., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2017). Suicide ideation and attempts among First Nations Peoples living on-reserve in Canada: The intergenerational and cumulative effects of Indian residential schools. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 62(6), 422–430. https://doi.org/10.1177/0706743717702075
McQuaid, R. J., Schwartz, F. D., Blackstock, C., Matheson, K., Anisman, H., & Bombay, A. (2022). Parent-child separations and mental health among First Nations and Métis Peoples in Canada: Links to intergenerational residential school attendance. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(11), Article 6877. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19116877
Melander, L. A., Sittner Hartshorn, K. J., & Whitbeck, L. B. (2013). Correlates of bullying behaviors among a sample of North American Indigenous adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 36(4), 675–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.05.003
Miller, J. R. (1996). Shingwauk’s vision: A history of Native residential schools. University of Toronto Press.
Nelson, C. A., Bhutta, Z. A., Burke Harris, N., Danese, A., & Samara, M. (2020). Adversity in childhood is linked to mental and physical health throughout life. BMJ, 371, Article m3048. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m3048
Ogle, C. M., Rubin, D. C., & Siegler, I. C. (2013). The impact of the developmental timing of trauma exposure on PTSD symptoms and psychosocial functioning among older adults. Developmental Psychology, 49(11), 2191–2200. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031985
Oliver, R., Grote, E., Rochecouste, J., & Exell, M. (2012). Addressing the language and literacy needs of Aboriginal high school VET students who speak SAE as an additional language. The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, 41(2), 229–239. https://doi.org/10.1017/jie.2012.23
Paradies, Y. (2006). A review of psychosocial stress and chronic disease for 4th world Indigenous Peoples and African Americans. Ethnicity & Disease, 16(1), 295–308.
Paradies, Y. C., & Cunningham, J. (2012). The DRUID study: Racism and self-assessed health status in an Indigenous population. BMC Public Health, 12, Article 131. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-131
Patrick, D., & Budach, G. (2014). “Urban-rural” dynamics and Indigenous urbanization: The case of Inuit language use in Ottawa. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 13(4), 236–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/15348458.2014.939034
Paul, J. (2020). Social stressors, community belonging, and culture-related protective factors among youth and adults in First Nations communities: Links with psychological distress [Master’s thesis, Dalhousie University]. DalSpace Institutional Repository. https://dalspace.library.dal.ca/handle/10222/79801
Paul, J., McQuaid, R. J., Hopkins, C., Perri, A., Stewart, S., Matheson, K., Anisman, H., & Bombay, A. (2022). Relations between bullying and distress among youth living in First Nations communities: Assessing direct and moderating effects of culture-related variables. Transcultural Psychiatry. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/13634615221109359
Pieterse, A., & Powell, S. (2016). A theoretical overview of the impact of racism on people of color. In A. N. Alvarez, C. T. H. Liang, & H. A. Neville (Eds.), The cost of racism for people of color: Contextualizing experiences of discrimination (pp. 11–30). https://doi.org/10.1037/14852-002
Pluess, M., Conrad, A., & Wilhelm, F. H. (2009). Muscle tension in generalized anxiety disorder: A critical review of the literature. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.03.016
Räikkönen, K., Lahti, M., Heinonen, K., Pesonen, A.-K., Wahlbeck, K., Kajantie, E., Osmond, C., Barker, D. J. P., & Eriksson, J. G. (2011). Risk of severe mental disorders in adults separated temporarily from their parents in childhood: The Helsinki Birth Cohort Study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45(3), 332–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.07.003
Reyhner, J. (2018). American Indian boarding schools: What went wrong? What is going right? Journal of American Indian Education, 57(1), 58–78. https://doi.org/10.5749/jamerindieduc.57.1.0058
Richmond, J. M., Elliott, A. N., Pierce, T. W., Aspelmeier, J. E., & Alexander, A. A. (2009). Polyvictimization, childhood victimization, and psychological distress in college women. Child Maltreatment, 14(2), 127–147. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559508326357
Rojo-Wissar, D. M., Sosnowski, D. W., Ingram, M. M., Jackson, C. L., Maher, B. S., Alfano, C. A., Meltzer, L. J., & Spira, A. P. (2021). Associations of adverse childhood experiences with adolescent total sleep time, social jetlag, and insomnia symptoms. Sleep Medicine, 88, 104–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2021.10.019
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. (1996, October). Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. https://publications.gc.ca/Collection-R/LoPBdP/EB/prb9924-e.htm
Sege, R. D., & Amaya-Jackson, L. (2019). Clinical considerations related to the behavioral manifestations of child maltreatment. In Pediatric mental health: A compendium of AAP clinical practice guidelines and policies (295–307). American Academy of Pediatrics. https://doi.org/10.1542/9781610023658-part05-clinical_considerations
Shema, C. (2022). Holistic aspects of North American Indigenous mental wellness and implications: Theory and clinical practice. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360689131_Holistic_Aspects_of_North_American_Indigenous_Mental_Wellness_and_Implications_Theory_and_Clinical_Practice
Shepherd, C. C. J., Li, J., & Zubrick, S. R. (2012). Social gradients in the health of Indigenous Australians. American Journal of Public Health, 102(1), 107–117. https://doi.org/10.2105%2FAJPH.2011.300354
Shepherd, C. C. J., Li, J., Mitrou, F., & Zubrick, S. R. (2012). Socioeconomic disparities in the mental health of Indigenous children in Western Australia. BMC Public Health, 12, Article 756. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-756
Smith, A. (n.d.). Indigenous Peoples and boarding schools: A comparative study. United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues. https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/IPS_Boarding_Schools.pdf
Spence, N. D., Wells, S., Graham, K., & George, J. (2016). Racial discrimination, cultural resilience, and stress. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 61(5), 298–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/0706743716638653
Stonechild, B. (2006). The new buffalo: The struggle for Aboriginal post-secondary education in Canada. University of Manitoba Press.
Stout, M. D., & Kipling, G. D. (2003). Aboriginal people, resilience, and the residential school legacy. Aboriginal Healing Foundation. https://collections.irshdc.ubc.ca/index.php/Detail/objects/8696
Strobel, C. (2015). The global Atlantic: 1400 to 1900. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315722627
The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. (2015a). Honouring the truth, reconciling for the future: Summary of the final report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. https://ehprnh2mwo3.exactdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Executive_Summary_English_Web.pdf
The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. (2015b). The survivors speak: A report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. https://ehprnh2mwo3.exactdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Survivors_Speak_English_Web.pdf
The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. (2015c). Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to action. https://ehprnh2mwo3.exactdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Calls_to_Action_English2.pdf
Tsigos, C., & Chrousos, G. P. (2002). Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, neuroendocrine factors and stress. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 53(4), 865–871. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-3999(02)00429-4
United Nations. (2007, September 13). The United Nations declaration on the rights of Indigenous Peoples. https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/wp-content/uploads/sites/19/2018/11/UNDRIP_E_web.pdf
Vachon, D. D., Krueger, R. F., Rogosch, F. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2015). Assessment of the harmful psychiatric and behavioral effects of different forms of child maltreatment. JAMA Psychiatry, 72(11), 1135–1142. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.1792
Wallace, J. M., Jr., Bachman, J. G., O’Malley, P. M., Schulenberg, J. E., Cooper, S. M., & Johnston, L. D. (2003). Gender and ethnic differences in smoking, drinking and illicit drug use among American 8th, 10th and 12th grade students, 1976–2000. Addiction, 98(2), 225–234. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00282.x
Walls, M. L., & Whitbeck, L. B. (2011). Distress among Indigenous North Americans. Society and Mental Health, 1(2), 124–136. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156869311414919
Walls, M. L., & Whitbeck, L. B. (2012a). Advantages of stress process approaches for measuring historical trauma. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 38(5), 416–420. http://doi.org/10.3109/00952990.2012.694524
Walls, M. L., & Whitbeck, L. B. (2012b). The intergenerational effects of relocation policies on Indigenous families. Journal of Family Issues, 33(9), 1272–1293. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x12447178
Walters, J. M. (2004). Testing a biopsychosocial model of perceived racism among Latinos (Publication No. 3153452) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.
Whitbeck, L.B. (2011). The Beginnings of Mental Health Disparities: Emergent Mental Disorders Among Indigenous Adolescents. In: Carlo, G., Crockett, L., Carranza, M. (eds) Health Disparities in Youth and Families. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, vol 57. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-7092-3_6
White, L. O., Ising, M., von Klitzing, K., Sierau, S., Michel, A., Klein, A. M., Andreas, A., Keil, J., Quintero, L., Müller-Myhsok, B., Uhr, M., Gausche, R., Manly, J. T., Crowley, M. J., Kirschbaum, C., & Stalder, T. (2017). Reduced hair cortisol after maltreatment mediates externalizing symptoms in middle childhood and adolescence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58(9), 998–1007. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12700
Wuttunee, W. (2004). Living rhythms: Lessons in Aboriginal economic resilience and vision. McGill-Queen’s University Press.
Zubrick, S. R., Dudgeon, P., Gee, G., Glaskin, B., Kelly, K., Paradies, Y., Scrine, C., & Walker, R. (2010). Social determinants of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander social and emotional wellbeing. In N. Purdie, P. Dudgeon, & R. Walker (Eds.), Working together: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander mental health and wellbeing principles and practice (pp. 75–90). Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/36780809.pdf#page=109
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2023 Rebecca St. James, Jocelyn Paul
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
The journal aims to reduce barriers to publishing and sharing research and inequalities to accessing information.This journal provides immediate open access to its content on the principle that making research freely available to the public supports a greater global exchange of knowledge. The open-access nature of the journal means that there will be no charge for authors or readers to use the journal. The journal has a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial (CCBYNC) attribution which allows the author (and others) to share and distribute their full-text article in other public domains, such as Google Scholar or Research Gate.